For example, researchers have genetically modified mice to overproduce DeltaFosB in the reward system at similar levels to those of drug addicted mice. When presented with cocaine for the first time, these mice showed increased sensitivity to the drug and respond and behave in manners similar to those of rats who had become addicted through chronic use [ ].
Multiple tests using Syrian hamsters treated to overproduce DeltaFosB have focused on the effects of sexual behavior, and found a similarly enhanced sensitivity to sexual activity [ , ]. Wallace et al. These authors found repeated sexual experience significantly increased DeltaFosB levels in the NAcc compared with controls, although the rates of increase were lesser than with drugs of abuse.
Pitchers et al. Investigating the combination of natural and drug rewards, Pitchers et al. In his highly regarded book on neuroplasticity, The Brain That Changes Itself [ ] Norman Doidge summarized the research on addiction and the reward system, and stated that the continued release of dopamine into the reward system when an individual compulsively and chronically watches Internet pornography stimulates neuroplastic changes that reinforce the experience.
Doidge went on to explain how these neuroplastic changes build brain maps for sexual excitement. The authors provided a short literature review renewing the argument that all manifestations of addiction operate via the same underlying mechanisms. The authors included many of the previously mentioned studies; the role of DeltaFosB in natural addictions, neuroanatomical changes caused by excessive behaviors, changes in dopamine receptor density, and the influence of excessive behaviors on the reward system.
Hilton published a second and similar literature review [ 24 ], again emphasizing the critical role of DeltaFosB research as informing the study of not only sexuality in general but the more specific scope of internet pornography consumption.
The first fMRI study which explicitly focused on IPA was published in , when the first in a series of Cambridge University studies found the same brain activity as seen in drug addicts and alcoholics [ ]. In this arguably landmark study an experiment was conducted designed to measure the subjective experience of cue-reactivity, as well as the neurobiological markers and correlates, if any, found in subjects with compulsive sexual behavior CSB.
Note that this study included two primary lines of investigation. The subjects were shown the videos both inside and outside of the fMRI scanner. This line of study yielded two distinct results: 1 Compared to the healthy control subjects, the CSB subjects reported higher desire ratings to the sexually explicit videos, but not to the erotic clips; 2 Compared to the healthy controls, the CSB subjects reported higher liking rating to the erotic clips, but not to the explicit cues.
These results indicated a dissociation between liking and wanting by CSB-subjects when watching sexually explicit videos. These results replicated the results of well-established studies on the incentive-salience theory of addiction, wherein addicts report higher levels of wanting but not of liking their salient rewards.
The second primary area of investigation contained within this study regards neuroimaging results of compulsive sexual behaviors CSB , internet pornography in particular. Prior studies have indicated common brain regions activated during craving states and drug-cue-reactivity for alcohol, cocaine, and nicotine; among others, the amygdala, dACC, and ventral striatum [ ]. While the researchers in the present study found these same regions to become activated within both CSB and non-CSB subjects when shown sexually explicit materials, the researchers found elevated activation in the CSB subjects.
Based on these results, Voon et al. The current and extant findings suggest that a common network exists for sexual-cue reactivity and drug-cue reactivity in groups with CSB and drug addictions, respectively. Note that this finding is in line with the actual results of a recent study purporting to find otherwise [ ]. Three main results were reported.
First, longer duration and more hours per week of use correlated with lower grey matter volume in the right caudate. While the caudate serves multiple complex functions, volume changes in the striatum are associated with several addictions, while the direction of change is not consistent.
Second, more years and more hours per week of use correlated with lower left putaminal activity in response to brief, still sexual images. Given the stronger response to 9-second explicit video clips in Voon et al. Alternatively, the non-addicts here examined may be responding differently than addicts would have.
Finally, subjects who consumed more pornographic material were found to have less connectivity between the right caudate and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex DLPFC. While the DLPFC is concerned with executive functions, it is also associated with cue reactivity to drugs and internet gaming. Disruptions in this circuit are implicated in drug and behavioral addictions. Specifically, poor functional connectivity between the DLPFC and caudate as found in the current study is implicated in heroin addiction [ ].
Multiple presentations indicating potential upcoming papers on the neurobiology of IPA were delivered at the 2nd International Conference on Behavioral Addictions in Budapest, Hungary. Note that these are all conference proceedings and have not yet been published in peer reviewed journals. They do provide further proof, however, of the fact that there is a rapidly growing body of research.
These researchers followed a study model [ ], in which researchers found increased sensitivity in response to addictive cues measured by shorter reaction times and blunted response in the ventral striatum when shown non-addictive cues.
In their study, Gola et al. In a similar fMRI study, Brand, Grabenhorst, Snagowski, Laier and Maderwald [ ] found heterosexual males to have increased ventral striatal activity in response to preferred pornographic images. Further, the increase in activity correlated with the degree of subjective complaints due to their Internet Pornography addiction. Wehrum-Osinsky, Klucken and Stark [ ] reported on a potentially similar fMRI study they conducted with 20 subjects reporting excessive internet pornography consumption and 20 control subjects.
Although more neuropsychological than neurobiological, multiple studies have been conducted investigating the impacts of internet pornography viewing on cognitive operations. This line of inquiry is relevant to the present paper in that the neurobiological mechanisms underlying neuropsychological operations have been well established. For example, Fineberg et al. In their work, these authors provided a table wherein they mapped neurocognitive domains different forms of impulsivity and compulsivity to neuroanatomical and neurochemical findings.
Similarly, in their aforementioned review, Fineberg et al. As such, we believe that reporting the following neuropsychological studies exploring the interference of processing sexual cues and sexual arousal with executive functions has direct applicability to this review of brain science studies focused on the problem of IPA.
Several theories and experimental paradigms have been developed to describe and investigate executive functions [ ]. Generally, executive functioning describes a complex interplay between several cognitive domains in order to facilitate goal-directed behaviors, e. Regarding the neural correlates of executive functions it was shown that they generally were located in the prefrontal cortex, but vary between the single facets of executive functions [ , , ].
Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies on substance addictions showed that the prefrontal cortex and executive functions get impaired following substance use [ 46 , ]. This was taken into account to explain repeated drug administration and the preference for short-term reinforcement due to the drug despite severe negative consequences following drug use [ ].
Within the development of addictive sexual behaviors on the Internet it was assumed that anticipating and receiving gratification plays an important role [ ], since sexual arousal is highly reinforcing [ , ]. Experimentally, it was shown that sexual arousal reactions to Internet pornographic cues were related to symptom severity of IPA in heterosexual males and females as well as in homosexual males [ , , , ] and that problematic IP users reacted with increased subjective craving compared to healthy cybersex users when being confronted with Internet pornographic material [ ].
It has been further shown that positive implicit associations as measured by an Implicit Association Task modified with pornographic pictures [ ] and moreover, approach and avoidance tendencies [ ] are linked to symptoms of IPA.
Based upon these observations, the model of specific internet addiction proposed by Brand et al. Reid, Karim, McCrory and Carpenter [ ] found greater self-reported executive dysfunction in a sample of hypersexual patients, another study found no general impairments of executive functions observed using neuropsychological tests [ ].
However, several studies reported an interference of the processing of sexual cues and sexual arousal with executive functions. Deficits in visual processing caused by bound attention due to erotic stimuli was shown in studies using a choice reaction time task [ ], rapid target perception [ ], and a dot detection task [ , , ].
In line with the above, Laier, Pawlikowski and Brand [ ] used an Iowa Gambling Task modified with pornographic pictures and found that the sexual arousal in a decision making situation can interfere with feedback processing and advantageous decision making. Similarly, sexual arousal induced by sexual images impaired working memory performance in a pictorial 4-back paradigm [ ] as well as switching and monitoring performance in an executive multitasking paradigm [ ]. The findings of an attentional bias towards sexually explicit cues was replicated and shown to be enhanced in a sample of sexually compulsive individuals [ ].
This is in line with the theoretical suggestion that executive functions should be affected in situations in which individuals are confronted with addiction-related cues eliciting craving reactions [ 15 ].
In the results, no difference in the task performance was observed when comparing video conditions, but differential prefrontal coupling was observed during the two tasks in the erotic video condition. The authors explain that sexual arousal interfered with cognitive functioning but that task performance was not decreased because of functional adaptations during the task performance, which in turn could be interfered with in craving situations experienced in addiction.
An EEG study on those complaining of problems regulating their viewing of internet pornography has reported the neural reactivity to sexual stimuli [ ]. The study was designed to examine the relationship between ERP amplitudes when viewing emotional and sexual images and questionnaire measures of hypersexuality and sexual desire.
However, the lack of correlations may be better explained by arguable flaws in the methodology. For example, this study used a heterogeneous subject pool males and females, including 7 non-heterosexuals. Cue-reactivity studies comparing the brain response of addicts to healthy controls require homogenous subjects same sex, similar ages to have valid results. Additionally, two of the screening questionnaires have not been validated for addicted IP users, and the subjects were not screened for other manifestations of addiction or mood disorders.
Finally, a significant finding of the paper higher P amplitude to sexual images, relative to neutral pictures is given minimal attention in the discussion section. This is unexpected, as a common finding with substance and internet addicts is an increased P amplitude relative to neutral stimuli when exposed to visual cues associated with their addiction [ ]. In fact, Voon, et al. Voon et al. Similarly, both studies show a correlation between these measures with enhanced desire.
Here we suggest that dACC activity correlates with desire, which may reflect an index of craving, but does not correlate with liking suggestive of on an incentive-salience model of addictions.
So while these authors [ ] claimed that their study refuted the application of the addiction model to CSB, Voon et al. Another EEG study involving three of the same authors was recently published [ ]. Unfortunately, this new study suffered from many of the same methodological issues as the prior one [ ]. For example, it used a heterogeneous subject pool, the researchers employed screening questionnaires that have not been validated for pathological internet pornography users, and the subjects were not screened for other manifestations of addiction or mood disorders.
In the new study, Prause et al. As expected, the LPP amplitude relative to neutral pictures increased for both groups, although the amplitude increase was smaller for the IPA subjects. Specifically, higher pornography use correlated with lower grey matter volume in the dorsal striatum, a region associated sexual arousal and motivation [ ].
One might expect frequent viewers of Internet pornography and controls to have similar LPP amplitudes in response to brief exposure to sexual images if pathological consumption of Internet pornography had no effect. Instead, the unexpected finding of Prause et al. One might logically parallel this to tolerance.
Sexual films produce more physiological and subjective arousal than sexual images [ ] and viewing sexual films results in less interest and sexual responsiveness to sexual images [ ]. Taken together, the Prause et al. In addition, the statement of Prause et al.
Moreover, it is critical to note that one of the major challenges in assessing brain responses to cues in Internet pornography addicts is that viewing sexual stimuli is the addictive behavior. In contrast, cue-reactivity studies on cocaine addicts utilize pictures related to cocaine use white lines on a mirror , rather than having subjects actually ingest cocaine.
Since the viewing of sexual images and videos is the addictive behavior, future brain activation studies on Internet pornography users must take caution in both experimental design and interpretation of results.
For example, in contrast to the one-second exposure to still images used by Prause et al. Unlike the one-second exposure to still images Prause et al.
This review investigated the current body of scientific knowledge regarding neural processes of addiction in relation to both broad areas of psychoactive substances and behaviors such as gambling, sex and internet use, as well as the available research supporting specific behavioral aspects and their subtypes. Most of the studies used neuroimaging measures, EEGs, or physiological measurements, although some studies used neuropsychological measures.
The net result of this inquiry yielded a very large number of neuroscience based studies that support the application of the addiction model to addictive Internet-related behaviors. ASAM clearly stated that all manifestations of addiction are about common effects on the brain, not the differences in substances or contents or behaviors. By this logic, viewing IP excessively and playing internet games excessively are substantively different, despite substantial overlap in activation of the reward system of the brain, and despite the potential for the exhibition of similar psychosocial behaviors and psychosocial consequences.
The essential feature of Internet gaming disorder is persistent and recurrent participation in computer gaming, typically group games, for many hours. These games involve competition between groups of players Team aspects appear to be a key motivation. Based on this logic, abusing substances in a bar or at a party can constitute substance abuse, but abusing substances while alone does not.
To make an internet-related analogy, this logic dictates that someone playing World of Warcraft excessively is addicted, but someone playing Candy Crush excessively is not. This review presents strong neuroscientific evidence for viewing internet-related behaviors, including IP use, as potentially addictive, which should be taken into consideration when discussing the classification of IPA.
Todd Love conceived the project, conducted the literature review, and wrote the main part paper. Christian Laier and Matthias Brand contributed theoretically to the manuscript, wrote parts of the manuscript, and revised the manuscript. Linda Hatch contributed to shaping and outlining the overall ideas presented, and assisted with the editing of the manuscript.
Raju Hajela reviewed and edited the medical science, contributed theoretically, and assisted with the editing of the manuscript. All authors approved the manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Behav Sci Basel v. Behav Sci Basel.
Published online Sep Find articles by Christian Laier. Andrew Doan, Academic Editor. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Jul 2; Accepted Sep 8. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.
Abstract Many recognize that several behaviors potentially affecting the reward circuitry in human brains lead to a loss of control and other symptoms of addiction in at least some individuals. Keywords: internet pornography addiction, internet addiction, internet gaming disorder, neuroscience, neuroimaging, DSM-5, behavioral addiction, addictive behavior, cybersex, online sexual behavior.
Introduction A revolutionary paradigm shift is occurring in the field of addiction that has great implications for assessment and treatment. As a result of the growing neuroscientific evidence, the American Society of Addiction Medicine ASAM formally expanded their definition of addiction in to include both behaviors and substances: Addiction is a primary, chronic disease of brain reward, motivation, memory and related circuitry.
Neurobiology of Addiction The scope of this topic was limited to the previous ten years, with primary focus given to articles published in the past five years. Neurobiology of Addictive Behaviors This scope was not time-delimited, as it is an emerging topic whose entire historical context is relevant. Internet Addiction As this is another emerging topic, there was no time-scope set for this topic, although priority was given to studies and reviews published in the previous five years.
Internet Pornography Addiction Research into the area of addictive sexual behaviors on the Internet began with an inquiry into the various constructs surrounding compulsive sexual behavior. Literature Review 3. Neurobiology of Addiction All drugs of abuse affect the mesolimbic dopamine DA pathway, which originates from the ventral tegmental area VTA and projects into the nucleus accumbens NAcc.
Three-Stage Model of Addiction Nora Volkow describes addiction as a neurobiochemically based shift from impulsive action learned through positive reinforcement to compulsive actions learned through negative reinforcement [ 43 ].
Anti-Reward George Koob proposed an expansion of the second stage of addiction. Neurobiology of Learning, Habit, and Motivation While both the Anti-Reward and I-RISA models include learning components, other theories of addiction focus primarily on the learning aspects of addiction, and the biological underpinnings thereof.
Genetics Genetics, as they are relevant here, can be divided into three mechanisms; Genetic heritability, addiction related genetic expression in the individual, and epigenetics intersecting the two. Molecular Underpinnings of Addiction A large amount of research on the molecular explanation for addiction has emerged in the last decade, often focusing on the roles of CREB, DeltaFosB and glutamate [ 2 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ]. Gambling Disorder In addition to the aforementioned research into the neurobiology of both substance use disorders SUDs and addictive behaviors, there is a substantial body of research specifically into the neurobiology of Gambling Disorder GD known as Pathological Gambling PG prior to the DSM Internet Addiction Researchers have been studying IA for nearly two decades.
Internet Gaming Disorder IA was formally proposed for inclusion in the DSM-5 two times, once with gaming as a subtype, and once with no subtypes [ 17 , 34 ]. Despite claims of limited research on the topic [ 12 , 16 , 46 , 47 , , , ], a yearly breakdown of primary brain studies excluding reviews on IA and its subtype IGD makes it evident that brain studies in support of IA in this field are mounting rapidly: Prior to —6 studies, —4 studies, —8 studies, —9 studies, —14 studies, —19 studies, —23 studies, and through June —16 studies.
Compulsive Sexual Behavior Childress et al. Internet Pornography In his highly regarded book on neuroplasticity, The Brain That Changes Itself [ ] Norman Doidge summarized the research on addiction and the reward system, and stated that the continued release of dopamine into the reward system when an individual compulsively and chronically watches Internet pornography stimulates neuroplastic changes that reinforce the experience.
Conclusions This review investigated the current body of scientific knowledge regarding neural processes of addiction in relation to both broad areas of psychoactive substances and behaviors such as gambling, sex and internet use, as well as the available research supporting specific behavioral aspects and their subtypes.
Author Contributions Todd Love conceived the project, conducted the literature review, and wrote the main part paper. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References and Notes 1. White W.
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People have anal sex for many reasons, including to avoid pregnancy. But can you get pregnant from anal? Health Conditions Discover Plan Connect. Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, Ph. Addiction vs. Is it really an addiction? What does addiction look like?
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